Notes: The original design for what was then known as the LVTP-7 dates back to the mid-1960s and the Vietnam War. First operational units reached the US Marines in 1971, and were then armed with a small cupola and an M-2HB machinegun. In 1986, upgrades began to replace that cupola with a larger turret armed with a Mk 19 grenade machinegun and the original M-2HB. There are two large hatches on the rear deck, and a power ramp in the rear with a door in it.

Notes: This is the next generation of amphibious assault vehicles, designed for the US Marines. The AAAV has heavier armor than the AAPV-7A1, consisting of welded aluminum alloy backed by ceramic and a Kevlar anti-spall liner. The AAAV is fully amphibious, capable of full off-road speed in water. The AAAV is not expected to begin equipping US Marine units until late 2013.

Twilight 2000 Notes: This vehicle does not exist.

Notes: Though development of what would become the AAVP-7 began in 1964, it was the first year of US involvement in Vietnam that really brought home to the Marines the shortcomings of the LVTP-5 series and the need for a better amphibious APC. The Marines quickly discovered that the LVTP-5 had a number of problems – it’s torsioelastic suspension, while it provided a comfortable ride over water and shore conditions such as rocks, sand, and reefs, was ill-suited for long trips and thus subject to frequent breakdowns. The LVTP-5 used the transmission and engine of the M-48 main battle tank – great for power, but not suited in the LVTP-5’s configuration; it could take a day of more to replace the power pack, and even routine service could require pulling out large amounts of the power pack just to get to the components to be serviced. Perhaps the greatest problem with the LVTP-5 as used in Vietnam lay with the fuel system; the tanks were under the floor, the engine ran on gasoline, and as the entire vehicle was lightly armored in the first place, even an antipersonnel mine explosion could sometimes turn the interior into a fiery slice of hell.

Because many of the LVTP’s problems were caused by improper employment of the vehicle, the Marines wanted something new that could take on roles Amtracs of the past could not. One of the first things to go was the torsioelastic suspension, replaced with a conventional torsion bar suspension on what was then called the LVTP-7 (later changed to AAVP-7). The armor protection was considerably upgrade, using the same 5083 aluminum armor that was used on the M-113 series. The engine chosen was a supercharged 400-horsepower 8V53T diesel truck engine with an HS-400 transmission; more importantly, the powerpack was a unified unit that could easily be lifted out of the vehicle in a matter of minutes with the proper equipment. The transmission was semiautomatic – it required no clutch, but still required gear selection on the part of the driver. The tracks were almost 54 centimeters wide for traction on soft sand as well as marshy conditions, and water propulsion was provided by two waterjets at the rear. Many other ideas were added, thrown out, or modified, and that, combined with political wrangling, meant that first deliveries of the LVTP-7 did not occur until 1972.

The LVTP-7 has a 3-man crew (driver, assistant driver, commander), and seated 25 Marines in the passenger compartment in the rear. The driver’s position is in the left front of the hull, behind the engine compartment, with the commander’s cupola behind and to the right of the driver. The assistant driver is on the opposite side of the hull from the driver, with a second set of driving controls. The officer or NCO in charge of the Marines in the rear has his own cupola to the rear of the driver’s hatch. The driver’s position as well as the OIC/NCOIC cupolas have seven periscopic vision block, and the commander’s cupola has nine; the front vision blocks at each position can be removed and replaced with an infrared night periscope. (There is no such provision at the assistant driver’s position.) In the rear ramp is a further vision block. In the passenger compartment, the remaining 24 Marines are seated in three rows of eight; all of the seats can be stowed away, clearing the compartment for cargo. The fuel tanks are in the walls of the vehicle. The commander’s cupola of the prototypes was armed with a 20mm M-139 autocannon and an M-73E1 7.62mm machinegun. The production versions, however, replaced these weapons with a single M-85 heavy machinegun with an 8x optical sight in a smaller cupola. An attempt was made on the prototypes to provide firing ports for the passengers, but these could not be squared with the need to maintain the watertight integrity of the hull. The rear deck has two large hatches, and the rear has a ramp with a door in it.

APC variants of the basic LVTP-7 include the LVTC-7 Command Vehicle. This version has provisions for up to seven radio antennas and a plethora of radios and communications equipment. The driver, assistant driver, and vehicle commander’s position are retained, but the cupola for the Marine troop commander is deleted and covered with an armored cap that is bolted on (though the vision blocks remain in place). As with the LVTP-7, the LVTC-7 vehicle commander’s cupola had a single M-85 machinegun, but in later production this cupola was unarmed so that other equipment could be stowed in the places that once held ammunition. In addition to the vehicle crew, the modified rear passenger area has a standard crew of one unit commander, four staff personnel, and five Marines to operate the communications equipment, assist the command staff, and perform other duties. There is a bench seat on the right side for these five crewmen; there is also a sliding mapboard and the communications equipment at this station. Various drawers, a folding table, and other ancillary equipment are also provided. Additional seats are found at the former troop commander’s position, at the front next to the unit commander’s seat, and at the rear of the vehicle.

Though the Marines expected to have the LVTP-7’s successor operational by the mid-1990s, delays, funding difficulties, and continuing research on the LVTP’s replacement considerably delayed its replacement (the ERV, which hasn’t yet been fielded). Therefore, in the early 1980s, a SLEP (Service Life Extension Program) was started, turning the LVTP-7 into the LVTP-7A1. This SLEP included replacement of the power pack and suspension, a new communications system based around the SINCGARS radio, upgraded protection, and a general overhaul of the vehicle. The engine was replaced by a 400-horsepower VT400 multi-fuel engine and a modified form of the old transmission called the HS400-3A1. The commander’s cupola was given an electric drive and the cupola enlarged slightly into a small turret with slightly-increased armor protection, along with eight smoke grenade dischargers. The shock absorbers were considerably upgraded, and shock absorbers were installed on the second set of roadwheels (where there had previously been none). Fuel tanks were replaced by flexible fuel bladders contained within the vehicle walls; these bladders are a bit further out from the passenger compartment walls and have self-sealing ability. The LVTP-7A1 was given the ability to lay a smoke screen by injecting diesel fuel into its exhaust. The assistant driver was given a night vision periscope. The bilge pumping system was given considerably more power. The LVTC-7 was given the same improvements and became the LVTC-7A1 (with the exception of the commander’s weapon station).

In 1984, during a vehicle and equipment designation change that affected many vehicles and equipment, the LVTP-7A1 was redesignated the AAVP-7A1. Any older LVTP-7s still in existence were redesignated AAVP-7. The LVTC-7 and LVTC-7A1 were redesignated AAVC-7 and AAVC-7A1 respectively. At this point, the commander’s weapon stations were replaced with small turrets equipped with both an M-2HB heavy machinegun and a 40mm Mk 19 automatic grenade launcher. Appliqué armor packages (designed by Rafael of Israel) were also devised for the AAVP-7 series, along with lugs for ERA; in addition, a steel mesh-type appliqué armor kit has been deployed on the AAVP-7A1. The bow plane was also modified to compensate for the weight and unbalancing effect of the appliqué armor when the AAVP-7A1 series is swimming.

Some interesting firepower upgrades were proposed for the AAVP-7A1. One of these was to replace the heavy machinegun with a 25mm M-242 Bushmaster autocannon, along with enlarging the turret. Another one (apparently seriously looked at) was to mount the turret of an M-2 Bradley on the AAVP-7A1. I have some stats for these below, but they never actually went past the conceptual phase.

The LVTP-7 and its descendants are typically called "Amtracs" or less commonly, "Gators" by their crews. Italy’s San Marcos Marines, Taiwan, Thailand, and Argentina are also known users of the LVTP-7 series.

Twilight 2000 Notes: In the Twilight 2000 timeline, virtually all of these vehicles are up to the AAVP/AAVC-7A1 standard in US use. Some other countries using them (such as Taiwan, Thailand, and Argentina) are using primarily LVTP/LVTC-7A1s and some LVTP/LVTC-7s. Some older LVTP-7s and LVTP-7A1s were refurbished early in the Twilight War and brought up to AAVP/AAVC-7A1 standards, but every so often (primarily in the Southern US) one may see an older LVTP/LVTC-7 in US hands. Italy’s San Marcos Marines are also known users of the AAVP-7A1. Perhaps 15% of the US Marines’ AAVP-7A1s are actually modified to the AAVP-7A1/25mm standard; these are called AAVP-7A2s.

Notes: Once the standard tracked amphibious carrier of the US Marines, the LVTP-5A1 is now used only by Chile, the Philippines, and Taiwan. It was designed shortly after World War 2 and was meant to provide invading Marines with protection during amphibious assaults. The vehicle is long and flat, and carries a large amount of troops and equipment. The troops access the vehicle through a large ramp in the rear, and the driver and commander have their own hatches. The commander has a cupola mounting a light machinegun in a hard mount. The troop compartment is actually large enough to carry a 105mm towed howitzer. 45 troops may be carried in an emergency, but all the troops must stand in this case.

Notes: When the Russian BMP-1 was first revealed to the West in 1967, it was a huge shock to NATO – they thought that the Soviets had a new class of armored personnel carrier that was easily better than anything they had, with armament that allowed the BMP-1 to defeat NATO’s APC and light armored vehicles and possibly even some tanks, as well as allowing their infantry to fight on an NBC battlefield. This was before some of the shortcomings of the BMP-1 were known; however, the essential point was clear – NATO’s "battlefield taxis" were no longer up to the task for most purposes. On top of that, it was clear that the M-113 series could not keep up with the speedy M-1 Abrams in the attack. Though most NATO countries were quick to follow up on the new concept of IFVs (Infantry Fighting Vehicles), the US took nearly 15 years of budget wrangling and infighting between the Infantry and Cavalry branches of the Army to field an IFV – the M-2 Bradley.

The original version of the Bradley, the M-2 (sometimes referred to as the "A0" version), was first issued to US Army troops in 1981 (though they were not considered operational until December of 1983). The most marked difference between the Bradley and previous US personnel carriers was its turret with its heavy armament. The Bradley uses a two-man turret, with the gunner operating a 25mm M-242 ChainGun (called the Bushmaster) and a twin TOW missile launcher contained in an armored box on the left side of the turret. The commander (called a "BC" by Bradley-mounted infantry, for "Bradley Commander") has no pintle-mounted armament on his hatch, as his weapon is considered to be the coaxial M-240C machinegun. The gunner also has controls for the coaxial machinegun, however, and the commander has auxiliary controls for the ChainGun (though not the TOW missiles). Both the gunner and commander have roof hatches with periscope-type vision blocks (the gunner has them to the left side, front, and about 30 degrees to the right side; the commander’s hatch is completely ringed with vision blocks), with no magnification. However, the gunner’s front periscopes are completely blocked by the head of his weapon sight in its armored box. The gunner has a 5x/12x image intensifier/thermal imager to use in conjunction with his gun/missile sight; the commander can also use this sight through an optical relay. The commander and gunner also have simple magnified reticle gunsights to take quick shots with the ChainGun or coaxial machinegun at close-range targets, and these simple sights can be used from an open hatch if necessary. Both also can share an auxiliary 5x telescopic sight. The commander’s and gunner’s hatches may be locked fully open (i.e. 90 degrees), or locked open to a little less than half that, letting them sort of peek outside with minimal exposure. The turret is capable of two rotation rates; 30 degrees per second is considered a standard rotation rate, but a high-speed 60 degree-per-second rate is also available. The turret can also be rotated manually, and the gun and coax elevated and depressed manually, in the case of electrical failure. Once a target is just about lined up, fine adjustments to the direction the turret is pointed can also be made if necessary.

The ChainGun and the coaxial machinegun can be elevated to +59 degrees (+57 on the M2A1 and later) and depressed to -9 degrees. They cannot be independently elevated or depressed. Both are stabilized for fire on the move, at a full clip. This was thought to be adequate when the Bradley was designed, though urban warfare in Iraq has shown that in the case of elevation, it’s not enough. Ideas were floated to try to increase the elevation, but the construction of the turret simply makes this impossible. (This has led to an experimental retrofit of an external M-249 SAW [see below], and BCs are sometimes seen with M-16s or SAWs in their hands, or even the excess M-231 port firing weapons that are have fallen into almost-complete disuse with the M-2A2 and later versions of the Bradley.) The M-242 is unusual for a vehicle-mounted autocannon in that it can be set for semiautomatic fire; two other fire rates are available for the M-242 – 100 rpm and 200 rpm. The M-242 is a dual-feed weapon, and the gunner may switch between belts with a simple flick of a switch (though for game purposes, and to simplify things, ammo from only one belt may be fired per semiautomatic shot or burst). The M-242 is electrically powered, but the M-240C coaxial is a variant of the standard M-240B infantry model, with spade grips and a sort of chute to vent the gasses of the fired rounds outside. The spent cases from the M-240C are caught in a bag attached to the machinegun; spent cases from the ChainGun are automatically dropped outside the turret through a slot forward of the "mantlet;" a rotating mechanism cycles during operation of the ChainGun and case "ejection" is part of this cycle. A pair of four-barreled, electrically-triggered smoke grenade launchers is found at the front of the turret, with one pair of launchers found on either side of the main gun and coaxial. Above these launchers are boxes which contain eight more grenades each. Originally, the Bradley could lay a thick, oily smoke screen by injecting diesel fuel into its exhaust, but with the change in the US military to a common fuel of JP-8 jet fuel, this capability has become superfluous, as injecting JP-8 into the exhaust won’t produce a smoke screen. Nonetheless, the Bradley still retains this capability (though today it is normally disabled).

The TOW launcher’s armored box is on the left side of the turret. It should be noted that while the box is armored, it is not as well-protected as the turret itself; it’s armor rating should be considered only 4 from the left side, and 2 from the front or rear. For firing, the box swings upwards to the side 90 degrees; about 10 seconds at a minimum are required by a good gunner to raise the launcher to firing position and take a shot. Though the TOW launcher box itself can be elevated to a significant degree and even depressed a little (+29 and -19 degrees), the TOW missiles cannot be controlled effectively in flight unless the launcher no more than +10 degrees and -0 degrees from being horizontal to the ground, due to the wire guidance of the TOW-series missiles for which the Bradley’s launcher is designed. (The M-2 Bradley TOW launcher is designed for TOW-1 series missiles.) Reloading of the launcher box is done by turning the turret to left a small amount (less then 5 degrees) and elevating the launcher box to its maximum elevation. Behind the turret on the rear deck is a narrow rectangular hatch that opens just enough for the crew or infantrymen in the rear to slide more missiles into the launcher box (i.e., one cannot stand up in that hatch and can just barely even peek out of it). If a TOW is in flight, the BC’s fire and turret rotation controls are locked in order to avoid a spoiled shot; the gunner also cannot rotate the turret if a TOW is in flight (though he can abort the TOW missile if necessary). After the TOW hits its target (or the gunner aborts), the guiding wires release from the launcher and fall off. It should be noted that the TOW launcher cannot be used on the move; the Bradley must be stationary in order to fire the TOW launcher.

The passenger compartment is for the most part in the rear of the Bradley, though two of the dismount infantrymen have seats on the left side of the turret. Though the entire passenger compartment is really cramped, those two seats are even more cramped. The rearmost passenger seat is in a particularly small space (one generally puts the smallest man back there), and that man is sitting with his back to the driver with only about a half a foot separating him from knocking heads with the driver. (When I was in mech infantry, this was often called the "die-in-place" seat…). In the M-2 Bradley, there are four more passenger seats; one on the left side facing forward, one on the left side facing to the rear, one on the left side facing to the rear, and one between those two facing to rear (generally used by the squad leader, who is also part of the dismount squad). The passengers in a "plain vanilla" M-2 have firing ports and periscopic vision blocks to allow them to observe outside the vehicle, with the exception of the center rear seat, which has only a vision block. While it is a bit awkward, the four troops on the sides of the M-2 version have to turn sideways in their seats (this is one reason the sliding wire stocks on the M-231 port firing weapons were quickly deleted). The passenger seats can also be folded up and stowed completely out of the way. In addition, effective fire is difficult from the firing ports unless the weapons are loaded with almost entirely tracer ammunition, as vision outside the vehicle is diminished, there are no night vision devices for the firing ports, weapon sights cannot be used, and there is a slight parallax error (the periscopes actually show a field of view about a foot above the weapon and are wide-angle lenses). The rear of the passenger compartment has an electrically-lowered ramp with a hydraulic backup, and an oval hatch is set inside the ramp on the right side. (This door has an interior lock as well as an exterior padlock; the padlock is primarily for use when the Bradley is parked in garrison to prevent unauthorized access.)

The driver is in the front right side of the vehicle, with the engine compartment to the left of him. Like all seats on the Bradley, the seats are (somewhat) padded to reduce crew fatigue, and the backrest can be folded down. The driver can enter his position from the passenger compartment, or through his overhead hatch. The driver’s hatch may be locked in a 90-degree open position or open about 30 degrees; when the Bradley is in combat, the hatch is normally closed or at the 30-degree position, as the 90-degree position blocks rotation of the turret. (The turret rotation system has an interlock which keeps the turret from rotating if the driver’s hatch is at the 90-degree position, in order to avoid bending the ChainGun’s barrel if it were to slam into the hatch while rotating.) As the driver’s hatch has as much armor as the rest of the top of the hull, it is too heavy to push open from a seated position (especially to a full 90-degree position). The hatch is therefore spring-loaded to a greater degree than the commander’s or gunner’s hatches.

The Bradley is protected by an aluminum alloy/steel laminate; for most of the vehicle, this armor also consists twin sections of armor spaced approximately 25mm apart to provide extra protection from HE-type projectiles. The floor of the Bradley has an additional centimeter of steel plate to increase mine protection. Track skirts with the same protection as the hull sides protect the sides; they hinge upwards for maintenance access. The M-2 version of the Bradley uses a Cummins VTA-903T diesel developing 500 horsepower; the suspension is exceptional for an APC, giving an unusually smooth ride. The M-2 version is also amphibious with preparation; about 15 minutes are required for an amphibious crossing, and requires the erection of a trim vane at the front and a flotation screen all around the vehicle.

Early experience with the M-2 revealed some shortcomings; this resulted in the M-2A1 being introduced in 1987 (though retrofitting of the central gas particulate NBC system for the driver, commander, and gunner began in May 1986). Improvements were made to the TOW missile system; these changes were primarily to allow use of the TOW-2 missile series as well as somewhat quicker target acquisition, and simplify construction and lower cost. (At first, replacement of the existing TOW launching box with a pair of non-moving launcher boxes, one on either side of the turret, was considered, but rejected as unnecessary). On the M-2 version, the turret bustle rack was angled inward; while this was ballistically more sound, it also seriously limited the storage space in the rack. The bustle rack on the M-2A1 was therefore given a square profile as well as enlarged. Ammunition storage in the bustle itself was also rearranged to allow more of the 25mm ammunition to be stored in the bustle instead of being distributed around the interior of the Bradley. Under-armor storage compartments were also added to the sides of the Bradley, though these were accessible only from the exterior of the Bradley and designed primarily for additional 25mm, 7.62mm, and 5.56mm ammunition storage. The storage for additional smoke grenades (for the grenade launchers) was removed from boxes just above the smoke grenade launchers on the turret to boxes at the rear of the vehicle on either side of the ramp; these boxes can hold a variety of mines, flares, grenades, or smoke grenades for the vehicle launchers. A thin layer of appliqué armor was added to the glacis and a small portion of the upper sides. In the interior of the M-2A1, the spall liner was improved, and a new fire suppression system was added inside the fuel tanks. The seating and stowage arrangement of the M-2A1 was rearranged, allowing for one more infantryman to be seated in the rear. The user of this seat does not have access to either a firing port or a vision block.

There had always been considerable controversy about the survivability of the Bradley. This controversy came to a head in 1984, when a series of live fire tests against M-2 versions of the Bradley were conducted. The tests were full of irregularities (for the most part in the proper combat loading of the Bradleys involved in the test), but eventually a live TOW shot against the side of a fully combat-loaded Bradley resulted in the vehicle being destroyed in a spectacular fireball. Development of the M-2A2 version of the Bradley (sometimes referred to as the Bradley II) dates to this point.

The changes from the M-2A1 to the M-2A2 were extensive, and centered around the fitting of heavier armor and lugs on the sides for reactive armor. In fact, the side armor was beefed up to the point that the sides of the Bradley were totally plated over. One immediate result of this extra armor was the loss of the side firing ports; their places on the hull were covered by the added side armor. (One vision block on either side was retained.) In addition, virtually the entire vehicle received increased armor protection – even the bustle rack was given an extra section at the rear – it can not only carry additional gear, but acts as a second layer of spaced armor. Internally, the interior of the M-2A2 was protected with an even thicker Kevlar spall liner of more modern design. The thickness of the armor on the front of the turret led to the deletion of the barrel jacket for the M-240C coaxial machinegun, and a slight redesign of the barrel extension for the M-242 ChainGun. Lugs for reactive armor blocks are found on the upper sides of the M-2A2 as well as on the glacis. These lugs can also mount bolt-on appliqué armor, bolt-on spaced armor, or the new slat armor if desired. The weight of the M-2A2 increased so much that it is no longer amphibious, and the trim vane and flotation screen have been removed. However, to cope with the increased weight, the VTA-903T was replaced with an upgraded version of the same engine, developing 600 horsepower.

Some smaller physical changes include retractable metal covers over the driver’s periscopes, along with a wire guard to protect the driver from wire and obstacles strewn across the Bradley’s path. Due to the changes in the frontal armor and the potential for the mounting of ERA, the design of the headlights was changed. Due to the loss of the side firing ports, the seating arrangement was again changed; on the sides of the passenger compartment, three troops sat on each side, and the "die-in-place" seat was retained. (Initially, this seat was to be removed and the dismount squad reduced back to six, but this decision was rethought.) The second seat on the left side of the turret was, however, deleted. Internal stowage, especially for the TOW missiles (and the infantry squad’s Dragons and M-136s) was again re-done (and again years later when the Javelin replaced the Dragon).

After operations in 1991’s Desert Storm campaign, several additions were made to the M-2A2 in response to crew wishes, new operational requirements and capabilities, and, unfortunately, the relatively high percentage of losses due to fratricide. This package of modifications was referred to as the ODS (Operation Desert Storm) upgrades, with such modified vehicles informally called M-2A2ODSs. Modifications included an improved, eye-safe laser rangefinder, the addition of a GPS system, an IFF system, thermal imaging for the driver, and a system to jam radio-guided and IR-guided missiles (regarded as only partially effective, but better than nothing). The missile jamming system consists of sensors to detect incoming missiles and automatically put out low-grade radio-jamming signals, launch flares and IR-defeating smoke grenades.

By 1995, operations during Desert Storm had been more fully evaluated. At the same time, the introduction of the M-1A2 Abrams III meant that the Abrams now had several important capabilities the Bradley lacked, and this led to the M-2A3 (sometime called the Bradley III). The largest change in the Bradley was internal; the Bradley was given computers and communications equipment to allow it to inter-operate with the Abrams III and the AH-64D Apache on the digital battlefield. The commander has a full flat-panel display/touchscreen and computer control; the gunner and driver have touchscreens of their own that display information appropriate to their roles. In the passenger compartment, mounted on a bracket that is against the turret basket but not actually attached to it (i.e., it does not rotate with the turret), is another large display to provide the dismount squad with information on the battlefield situation and allow them to plan, receive and provide updated information. Along with this capability, GPS and an INU (Inertial Navigation Unit) have been added. The M-2A3 has a computer (which has been steadily upgraded over time) to allow it to quickly receive, integrate, display, and send real-time battlefield information; commanders therefore (usually) know where their units are and their status; the Bradley is therefore a true counterpart to the Abrams on the digital battlefield. Rebuilding of existing Bradleys to the M-2A3 standard began in 1996, and by 2008 almost all Bradleys in the US Army inventory have been rebuilt to the M-2A3 standard.

Other improvements a CIS (Commander’s Independent Viewer), similar to the CITS of the M-1A2 Abrams III. The commander also retained the ability to see through the gunner’s sight. In addition, the thermal imagers were replaced with long-range FLIR systems more akin to those found on aircraft and helicopters. The M-2A3 has an automatic dual target tracking ability, and as the gunner’s sighted target is destroyed, the turret can be set to rotate automatically and the gun trained automatically on the commander’s sighted target. Fire control s also improved (the system called the IBAS – Improved Bradley Acquisition System), and boresighting is essentially automatic instead of requiring a stop and extensive adjustments. The gunner’s sight (the TAS – Target Acquisition System) has received particular attention in the fire control department. The main gun and coaxial machinegun is better stabilized and the ballistic computer improved (able to tap into, to a small amount, the primary computer of the Bradley). The TAS uses a 2^nd-generation FLIR and a day TV/image intensification device, with a digital zoom from 4x to 48x, and twice the field of view of the zoom sights of earlier Bradleys. The day TV/image intensifier sees in near-infrared as well visible light, making it usable even in heavy smoke, IR-obscuring smoke, and conditions of low thermal contrast where FLIR imaging would be of little use.

The turret roof of the M-2A3 has a thin layer of added titanium alloy armor, as Desert Storm operations revealed the turret roof to be the weakest surface of the vehicle. As an adjunct to the electronic IFF system, the Bradley accommodates special panels on the sides of the vehicle made of the special aluminum alloy. These panels, when viewed through thermal imagers or FLIRs of the proper wavelength, gives off a heat signature that provides a further deterrent to fratricide. The M-2A3 includes a special cooling system for the vehicle’s electronics, but experience in Iraq has led to low-power air conditioning to be fitted to the M-2A3 (and some M-2A2s still in service) to relieve the stifling heat that builds up inside the Bradley.

One of the newest members of the Bradley to be fielded is actually based on the FISTV version of the Bradley (the M-7, found in US Tracked Artillery Support Vehicles). This is the Bradley ACP (Assault Command Post), perhaps better known by its developmental name, the BCOTM Bradley (Battle Command On-the-Move). The ACP was first fielded in April of 2003, but at the time it was only an experiment – but a circumstance of the of combat during the Battle of Taji on 16 April 2003 dramatically demonstrated the ACP’s usefulness, as the pace of battle became to fast that 4^th ID’s DTAC could not arrive in time to set up and control the battle, and one ACP and a handful of other vehicles became the ad hoc DTAC for almost 18 hours.

The ACP is still considered a developmental vehicle, but more and more are in use in Iraq. They are currently found primarily at the Brigade HQ level and above, but plans are to eventually use ACPs down to Battalion level, and in a few other applications such as leaders’ reconnaissance. As a part of TAC-type units, the interior of an ACP is crammed full of computers, displays, radios and other gear necessary to rapidly display and control operations of a unit. In addition, the ACP has the same level of armor protection as a standard M-2A2, though the ACP has much less ammunition for its ChainGun, TOW launcher and coaxial machinegun. As there is only so much one can stuff into a Bradley, the ACP is usually accompanied in its duties by an M-1068 CPV version of the M-113. An ACP has approximately six times the computing power of an M-2A3, and information is displayed on three large displays that are linked via a KVM and can simultaneously accept input from the three operators, the on-scene commander, the M-1068 that accompanies the ACP, and higher headquarters via radio, using a special version of a standard Cisco-made router. The three large monitors can be swung to the sides to allow personnel to get in and out of the ACP. The ACP also has a Toughbook laptop with a secure wireless connection to the ACP. The ACP can be equipped with up to ten radios, though five or six are more common. An external receptacle allows the entire ACP to be connected to an external generator to power the huge amount of electronics without rapidly draining the ACP’s batteries. In addition, the electronics have two large UPSs to power them in emergencies or when generator switch-overs or maintenance are necessary. Needless to say, the ACP is definitely a cramped vehicle inside, but a commander can pretty much use an ACP to go wherever he needs to during a battle.

As a result of experience in Iraq, the Bradley’s designers have come up with the Bradley Urban Survival Kit (BUSK) for the Bradley, similar in concept to the TUSK for the Abrams tank. This kit consists of a number of large and small modifications that can be applied at the unit level, and largely grew out of informal modifications that were already being used by Bradley crews. One of these is a handheld 3-million-candlepower spotlight, which may be powered by a rechargeable internal battery or by the vehicle’s electrical system through a cable. In order to protect the crew and passengers from accidental electrocution if the antennas contact low-lying electrical wires (something I’ve actually seen happen in Korea), BAE Systems came up with antenna mounts that allow the antenna to be retracted with an electric motor (and a manual backup). In addition, a dome like-structure, consisting of a pair of flexible poles of a non-conductive material, can be mounted on the turret. (Bradley crews usually refer to this as a "tent," though it does not actually have any side panels.) These poles attach to the front, back, and sides of the top of the turret and meet at a 90-degree angle at the top, protecting against a lot of debris and wires that may hang across the road. Racks have been devised to give the crew and passengers extra external stowage for their gear on the sides and front of the Bradley; this not only cleans up the exterior stowage, but has the incidental effect of increasing the protection level of the Bradley (primarily by absorbing some small arms fire and pre-detonating shaped charge warheads.

One of the most interesting parts of the BUSK is CLAW. The CLAW (Commander’s Light Automatic Weapon) mount is still considered an experimental part of the BUSK (as of this writing in June 2008) and consists of a mount attached to the side of the CIV, so that the attached weapon (which may be an M-231 PFW, but is most commonly an M-249 SAW of any variety) is just above the CIV. The mount also allows for standard belt containers to be attached to the SAW. The weapon attached it a standard, unmodified version, so it may be easily unclipped from the CIV and used normally. The mount includes a mechanism to pull the trigger of the attached weapon, with a cable leading to the commander’s position that allows him to fire the weapon while buttoned up, and aim it using the CIV.

Twilight 2000 Notes: In Twilight 2000 pre-war active-duty US Army units, slightly over 60% of Bradleys are M-2A2s, with about a quarter of those M-2A2s being M-2A2ODSs. Most of the rest of the Bradleys in pre-war active-duty units are M-2A1s, but about 5% are "plain vanilla" M-2s and about 2% are M-2A3s. In pre-war Guard and Reserve units, Bradleys are almost half-and-half M-2s and M-2A1s, with about 10% being M-2A2s. The BUSK does not exist as such, though many of the BUSK features were added to Bradleys on an ad hoc basis. The M-7 ACP does not exist in the Twilight 2000 timeline.

*Floor armor for the M-2 and M-2A1 is 5; for the M-2A2, M-2A3, and M-7 ACP, it is 7. The turret roof of the M-2A3 has an AV 7.

Notes: By 2000, this famous veteran of World War 2 was long out of service in most countries, being actively used only by Yugoslavia, some South American countries, and in a reserve role in Israel and Lebanon. It was an attempt to provide an armored personnel carrier with the maneuverability and fuel efficiency of a medium truck and the cross-country capability of a tracked vehicle. The Half-Track was easy to make, but was a poor compromise between a truck and a tracked vehicle, not having the good attributes of either. In addition, it is open topped, providing no protections against air attack, airbursting munitions, or even a lucky grenade throw. They are easier to repair than a full-tracked vehicle, but not as mechanically simple as a full-wheeled vehicle. By 2000, most Half-tracks were being used as specialist vehicles such as weapon carriers, artillery tractors, ambulances, and logistics carriers, instead as APCs. There are doors on either side of the cab for the driver and commander, and a door on the rear of the hull for passengers. Over the commander’s position there is a ring mount for a heavy machinegun, and on each side of the passenger compartment there is a mount for a medium or light machinegun.

Notes: The M-4 C2V is a derivation of the M-2 Bradley chassis, designed to replace the M-577 in the command and control role. The M-4 uses a large, box-like enclosure fitted onto the back of the vehicle; the turret has been deleted, and the whole thing looks similar to the M-993 MLRS (which is also derived from the Bradley chassis). The M-4 has a 10-meter telescoping mast for its antenna system, which is able to simultaneously service 7 radios (included in the basic cost of the vehicle). The vehicle also has computers, map boards, a fax machine, and NBC protection.

Notes: This US armored personnel carrier was the predecessor to the M-113 series. It was an improvement over the M-75 APC used before it, but it is still a poor vehicle. The US Army replaced it with the M-113 in the early 1960s, but the M-59 is still used by Brazil, Greece, and Turkey. The M-59 uses two gasoline engines that are plagued by poor range, and the vehicle is amphibious only under ideal conditions. The only variant to enter production is a mortar carrier mounting an M-30 4.2" mortar.

Notes: This was one of the first US post-war APC designs, and also one if it’s first full-tracked APCs. It is a simple APC with a rectangular hull, topped with a ring-mounted machinegun. The driver is at the front on the left, with the commander to the rear of his position in the center. There are two large hatches on the rear roof for standing infantrymen, and two large doors in the rear of the hull. The gasoline engine severely limits the range, and the M-75 has no amphibious capability.

The last known user of the M-75 was Belgium, though these have since been replaced by the AIFV and M-113A2.

Notes: By the 1950s, the US Army already knew that their earlier APCs had essentially been failures; they were too big, too heavy, and too slow. The Army wanted APCs that could keep up with their main battle tanks of the time (the M-48 series and the then-projected M-60 series), and one that was amphibious, air-transportable, and if possible, air-droppable. Early prototypes of what would become the M-113, called the T-113, were ready for testing in late 1956, but revised requirements and new developments in aluminum alloy armor meant that the updated T-113E1 and T-113E2 prototypes did not begin their testing until October of 1958. Full production of the M-113, based on the T-113E2 prototype, began in January of 1960. The M-113 has since been upgraded and modified into scores of different forms; the M-113 series is regarded worldwide as one of the most adaptable platforms in existence. US crews typically refer to the M-113 series and most of its variants simply as "tracks."

The M-113 is basically a large armored box. There is a large overhead hatch designed for six of the passengers to stand with head, shoulders, and chest outside of it with their weapons (though I have seen as many as nine stuffed into that hatchway in actual use), and a hydraulic ramp at the rear with another hatch set into it on the left side. The ramp can be quickly opened by simply dropping it, or lowered more slowly by using engine power to help control the speed at which the ramp lowers. The handle to operate the ramp it to the rear of the driver, and it is the driver that is responsible for opening and closing the ramp under most circumstances. (The ramp is almost always opened in a controlled manner with the engine on, as without the engine on, the ramp will simply drop open once it is unlatched, which can damage the ramp’s mechanism. Without engine power, the ramp can be raised only with muscle power, taking 3-5 troops, and this can induce too much slack in the ramp cable.) The rear of the vehicle has no firing ports or vision blocks (though some very early examples of the M-113 had a vision block on the left and right sides of the passenger compartment), and is simply an open space with bench seats that can be folded and locked, a few storage compartments for ammunition and munitions like grenades, a shelf for a radio or two, and damn little other room for anything else other than the passengers. Perhaps distressingly, the fuel tanks of the M-113, M-113A1, and M-113A2 are inside the left wall of the passenger compartment, behind rather thin plates of metal. The M-113 also has a heater for the interior, fired by the vehicle’s fuel supply. At the center front of the M-113 is a small cupola for the commander; this is rotated by the commander simply unlocking the cupola and pulling him around in whichever direction desired. The cupola has periscopic vision blocks for all-around vision when buttoned up, and a platform with a seat that can be raised and lowered as necessary. The commander’s cupola also has a pintle mount for an NHT, NMT, or NLT-compatible weapon (most often the M-2HB); in addition, an adapter was made to mount a Dragon ATGM on the weapon mount, and there is also an adapter to mount a laser designator (these adapters are extremely rare). The driver’s position is in the left front of the hull; his hatch is above him, to the front and left of the commander’s cupola. The driver has vision blocks that cover everything except the rear and part of the right-side arcs, and the front one can be easily removed and replaced with a passive IR periscope. The seat for the driver can be raised and lowered so that the driver may drive with his head outside the hatch or buttoned up. The controls consist of a gearshift, a gas pedal, and a pair of tillers to steer and brake the vehicle using differential steering. (Driving an M-113 with the tiller system actually requires a surprising amount of upper body strength – if you don’t have it, you’ll develop it pretty fast.)

The engine of the original M-113 is a Chrysler 75M gasoline engine, coupled to an automatic transmission with four forward speeds and one reverse. A sore spot about the M-113’s power pack is the position of the exhaust – it is on the right front corner of the deck, and those standing in the troop hatch often get a bit queasy, if not outright sick to their stomachs, from the carbon monoxide in the exhaust. Many countries have taken the step of extending the exhaust pipe and running it downward to a position just above the tracks. The M-113 is amphibious with a minimum of preparation (the trim vane must be lowered to its swimming configuration, which takes no more than 15 seconds) – but the M-113 must already have rubber track skirts installed. These bolt onto the sides of the M-113 over the top part of the tracks; when the M-113 enters the water, an air bubble forms over the top of the tracks to give the M-113 the extra buoyancy needed for it to float. Propulsion is by the movement of its tracks. (These rubber skirts are easily torn up in normal field operations, and they are usually left in the motor pool.) The M-113 has a bilge pump that pumps water out of the engine compartment and from under the floor of the M-113. The M-113 used a flat torsion bar suspension, another thing that could lead to troops feeing beat-up and queasy by the time they reached the AO; I’m not the only one who has thrown up during a long off-road M-113 ride!

As stated above, the original M-113 used a gasoline engine, developing 215 horsepower. In the conceptual and prototype phases, there were to be two versions: a lighter version for use by airborne, cavalry, and scout troops, and a heavier one to be